TEST 27

SECTION II

Time 35 minutes 25 Questions

Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages...

1.     Psychiatrist: We are learning that neurochemical imbalances can cause behavior ranging from extreme mental illness to less serious but irritating behavior such as obsessive fantasizing, petulance, or embarrassment. These findings will promote compassion and tolerance when looking at a mental illness, quirk, or mere difference between two persons, since being mentally healthy can now begin to be seen as simply having the same neurochemical balances as most people.

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the psychiatrist’s argument?

(A) Understanding the role of the neurochemical in behavior will foster empathy toward others.

(B) Neurochemical imbalances can cause mental illness and other behaviors.

(C) Neurochemical balances and imbalances are the main determinants of mental behavior.

(D) Being mentally healthy is a matter of having the same neurochemical balances as most people.（A）

(E) Advances in neurochemistry enhance our theories of mental illness.

2.     No one wants this job as much as Joshua does, but he is not applying for it. It follows that there will not be any applicants no matter how high the salary that is being offered.

The flawed reasoning in the argument above most closely parallels that in which one of the following?

(A) Beth knows better than anyone else how to spot errors in a computer program, yet even she has not found any in this program so far. So it is clear that the errors must all be in the rest of the program.

(B) If anyone can decipher this inscription, it is Professor Alvarez, but she is so involved with her new research that it will be impossible to interest her in this sort of task. Therefore, all we can do now is hope to find someone else.

(C) Although he has the strongest motive of anyone for buying Anna’s plot of land, Manfred is not pursuing the matter. Therefore, regardless of how low a price Anna is prepared to accept, she will be looking for a buyer in vain.

(D) The person initially most interested in obtaining the contract was Mr. Moore, but he of all people suddenly withdrew his bid. This means that, no matter how discouraged the other bidders had been, they will now redouble their efforts.（C）

(E) Three times Paul would have liked to take advantage of a special vacation package for himself and his family, but each time he was indispensable at the factory just then. So the more seniority Paul acquires, the greater are the constraints on his personal life.

3.     Many people limit the intake of calories and cholesterol in their diet in order to lose weight and reduce the level of cholesterol in their blood. When a person loses weight, the fat cells in that person’s body decrease in size but not in number. As they decrease in size, fat cells spill the cholesterol they contain into the bloodstream. Therefore, a person who goes on a low-calorie, low-cholesterol diet______

Which one of the following most logically completes the argument?

(A) might at first have an increased level of cholesterol in his or her blood

(B) will not lose weight any faster than will a person whose diet is high in calories

(C) might lose more weight by going on a low-calorie, high-cholesterol diet than by going on the low-calorie, low-cholesterol diet

(D) will not decrease the size of his or her fat cells（A）

(E) will both decrease the level of cholesterol in his or her blood and gain weight

Questions 4-5

Advances in photocopying technology allow criminals with no printing expertise to counterfeit paper currency. One standard anticounterfeiting technique, microprinting, prints paper currency with tiny designs that cannot be photocopied distinctly. Although counterfeits of microprinted currency can be detected easily by experts, such counterfeits often circulate widely before being detected. An alternative, though more costly, printing technique would print currency with a special ink. Currency printed with the ink would change color depending in how ordinary light strikes it, whereas photocopied counterfeits of such currency would not. Because this technique would allow anyone to detect photocopied counterfeit currency easily, it should be adopted instead of microprinting, despite the expense.

4.     Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for the recommendation made by the argument?

(A) When an anticounterfeiting technique depends on the detection of counterfeits by experts, the cost of inspection by experts adds significantly to the cost to society of that technique.

(B) For any anticounterfeiting technique to be effective, the existence of anticounterfeiting techniques should be widely broadcast, but the method by which counterfeits are detected should be kept secret.

(C) The process of microprinting paper currency involves fewer steps than does the printing of paper currency with the special ink.

(D) Before photocopying technology existed, most counterfeits of paper currency were accomplished by master engravers.（A）

(E) Many criminals do not have access to the advanced photocopiers that are needed to produce counterfeits of microprinted paper currency that cashiers will accept as real.

5.     Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the argument?

(A) The longer the interval between the time a counterfeit bill passes into circulation and the time the counterfeit is detected, the more difficult it is for law enforcement of officials to apprehend the counterfeiter.

(B) Sophisticated counterfeiters could produce currency printed with the special ink but cannot duplicate microprinted currency exactly.

(C) Further advances in photocopying technology will dramatically increase the level of detail that photocopies can reproduce.

(D) The largest quantities of counterfeit currency now entering circulation are produced by ordinary criminals who engage in counterfeiting only briefly.（B）

(E) It is very difficult to make accurate estimates of what the costs to society would be if large amounts of counterfeit currency circulated widely.

6.     One test to determine whether a person has been infected with tuberculosis consists of injecting the person with proteins extracted from the tuberculosis bacterium. Once a person has been infected by a bacterium, the person’s immune system subsequently recognizes certain proteins present in that bacterium and attacks the bacterium. This recognition also takes place in the test and results in a skin irritation at the injection site. Hence the physicians who designed the test reasoned that anyone who reacts in this manner to an injection with the tuberculosis proteins has been infected with tuberculosis.

Which one of the following is an assumption on which the physicians’ reasoning depends?

(A) All of the proteins present in disease-causing bacteria can be recognized by the body’s immune system.

(B) Localized skin irritations are a characteristic symptom of tuberculosis in most people.

(C) The ability of the proteins present in the tuberculosis bacterium to trigger the skin irritation is exclusive to that bacterium.

(D) Some people who have been injected with proteins extracted from the tuberculosis bacterium will contract tuberculosis as a result of the injection.（C）

(E) The body’s immune system cannot recognize infectious bacteria unless there are sufficient quantities of the bacteria to cause overt symptoms of disease.

7.     Generations of European-history students have been taught that a political assassination caused the First World War. Without some qualification, however, this teaching is bound to mislead, since the war would not have happened without the treaties and alliances that were already in effect and the military force that was already amassed. These were the deeper causes of the war, whereas the assassination was a cause only in a trivial sense. It was like the individual spark that happens to ignite a conflagration that was, in the prevailing conditions, inevitable.

Which one of the following most accurately restates the main point of the passage?

(A) The assassination did not cause the war, since the assassination was only the last in a chain of events leading up to the war, each of which had equal claim to being called its “cause.”

(B) The war was destined to happen, since the course of history up to that point could not have been altered.

(C) Though the statement that the assassination caused the war is true, the term “cause” more fundamentally applies to the conditions that made it possible for that event to start the war.

(D) If the assassination had occurred when it did but less military force had at that time been amassed, then the war’s outbreak might have been considerably delayed or the war might not have occurred at all.（C）

(E) Although the conditions prevailing at the time the war started made war inevitable, if the war had not been triggered by the assassination it would not have taken the course with which students of history are familiar.

8.     Toddlers are not being malicious when they bite people. For example, a child may want a toy, and feel that the person he or she bites is preventing him or her from having it.

The situation as described above most closely conforms to which one of the following generalizations?

(A) Biting people is sometimes a way for toddlers to try to solve problems.

(B) Toddlers sometimes engage in biting people in order to get attention from adults.

(C) Toddlers mistakenly believe that biting people is viewed as acceptable behavior by adults.

(D) Toddlers do not recognize that by biting people they often thwart their own ends.（A）

(E) Resorting to biting people is in some cases an effective way for toddlers to get what they want.

9.     Consumer advocate: Last year’s worldwide alarm about a computer “virus”—a surreptitiously introduced computer program that can destroy other programs and data—was a fraud. Companies selling programs to protect computers against such viruses raised worldwide concern about the possibility that a destructive virus would be activated on a certain date. There was more smoke than fire, however, only about a thousand cases of damage were reported around the world. Multitudes of antivirus programs were sold, so the companies’ warning was clearly only an effort to stimulate sales.

The reasoning in the consumer advocate’s argument is flawed because this argument

(A) restates its conclusion without attempting to offer a reason to accept it

(B) fails to acknowledge that antivirus programs might protect against viruses other than the particular one described

(C) asserts that the occurrence of one event after another shows that the earlier event was the cause of the later one

(D) used inflammatory language as a substitute for providing any evidence（E）

(E) overlooks the possibility that the protective steps taken did work and, for many computer, prevented the virus from causing damage

10.   Insects can see ultraviolet light and are known to identify important food sources and mating sites by sensing the characteristic patterns of ultraviolet light that these things reflect. Insects are also attracted to Glomosus spiderwebs, which reflect ultraviolet light. Thus, insects are probably attracted to these webs because of the specific patterns of ultraviolet light that these webs reflect.

Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the argument?

(A) When webs of many different species of spider were illuminated with a uniform source of white light containing an ultraviolet component, many of these webs did not reflect the ultraviolet light.

(B) When the silks of spiders that spin silk only for lining burrows and covering eggs were illuminated with white light containing an ultraviolet component, the silks of these spiders reflected ultraviolet light.

(C) When webs of the comparatively recently evolved common garden spider were illuminated with white light containing an ultraviolet component, only certain portions of these webs reflected ultraviolet light.

(D) When Drosophila fruit flies were placed before a Glomosus web and a synthetic web of similar pattern that also reflected ultraviolet light and both webs were illuminated with white light containing an ultraviolet component, many of the fruit flies flew to the Glomosus web.（E）

(E) When Drosophila fruit flies were placed before two Glomosus webs, one illuminated with white light containing an ultraviolet component and one illuminated with white light without an ultraviolet component, the majority flew to the ultraviolet reflecting web.

11.   The Habitat Conservation Plan (HCP) is based on a law that allows developers to use land inhabited by endangered species in exchange for a promise to preserve critical habitat or provide replacement land nearby. Some individuals of endangered species are lost in return for assurances by the owner or developer that habitat for those remaining animals will be protected. Environmentalists are pleased that HCPs allowed them to win concessions from developers who would otherwise ignore rarely enforced environmental laws. Satisfied property owners prefer HCPs to more restrictive prohibitions of land use.

The situation described above most closely conforms to which one of the following principles?

(A) In order to avoid protracted legal battles environmentalists should compromise with developers.

(B) Developers should adhere only to those environmental laws that are not overburdensome.

(C) Laws should not be designed to serve the interests of all the parties concerned since they are often so weak that no one’s interest is served well.

(D) Laws should be fashioned in such a way as to reconcile the interests of developers and environmentalists.（D）

(E) The most effective means of preserving endangered species is to refrain from alienating property owners.

12.   It has long been thought that lizards evolves from a group of amphibians called anthracosaurs, no fossils of which have been found in any rocks older than 300 million years. However, a fossil of a lizard was recently found that is estimated to be 340 million years old. Lizards could not have evolved from creatures that did not exist until after the first lizards. Therefore, lizards did not have evolved from anthracosaurs.

An assumption made in the argument is that there are no

(A) unknown anthracosaur fossils older than 340 million years

(B) unknown lizard fossils older than 340 million years

(C) known lizard fossils that predate some anthracosaur fossils

(D) known anthracosaur fossils that predate some lizard fossils（A）

(E) known lizard fossils whose age is uncertain

Questions 13-14

Numismatist: In medieval Spain, most gold coins were minted from gold mined in West Africa, in the area that is now Senegal. The gold mined in this region was the purest known. Its gold content of 92 percent allowed coins to be minted without refining the gold, and indeed coins minted from this source of gold can be recognized because they have that gold content. The mints could refine gold and produced other kinds of coins that had much purer gold content, but the Senegalese gold was never refined.

13.   Which one of the following inferences about gold coins minted in medieval Spain is most strongly supported by the information the numismatist gives?

(A) Coins minted from Senegalese gold all contained the same weight, as well as the same proportion of gold.

(B) The source of some refined gold from which coins were minted was unrefined gold with a gold content of less than 92 percent.

(C) Two coins could have the same monetary value even though they differed from each other in the percentage of gold they contained.

(D) No gold coins were minted that had a gold content of less than 92 percent.（B）

(E) The only unrefined gold from which coins could be minted was Senegalese gold.

14.   As a preliminary to negotiating prices, merchants selling goods often specified that payment should be in the coins minted from Senegalese gold. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain this preference?

(A) Because refined gold varied considerably in purity, specifying a price as a number of refined-gold coins did not fix the quantity of gold received in payment.

(B) During this period most day-to-day trading was conducted using silver coins, though gold coins were used for costly transactions and long-distance commerce.

(C) The mints were able to determine the purity, and hence the value, of gold coins by measuring their density.

(D) Since gold coins’ monetary value rested on the gold they contained, payments were frequently made using coins minted in several different countries.（A）

(E) Merchants obtaining gold to resell for use in jewelry could not sell the metal unless it was first refined.

15.   Some plants have extremely sensitive biological thermometers. For example, the leaves of rhododendrons curl when the temperature of the air around them is below 0℃(Celsius). Similarly, mature crocus blossoms open in temperatures above 2℃. So someone who simultaneously observed rhododendrons with uncurled leaves, crocuses with mature but unopened blossoms, and a thermometer showing 1℃ could determine that the thermometer’s reading was accurate to within plus or minus 1℃.

Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the reasoning above?

(A) Neither rhododendrons nor crocuses bloom for more than a few weeks each year, and the blossoms of rhododendrons growing in any area do not appear until at least several weeks after crocuses growing in that area have ceased to bloom.

(B) Many people find it unpleasant to be outdoors for long periods when the temperature is at or about 1℃.

(C) The climate and soil conditions that favor the growth of rhododendrons are also favorable to the growth of crocuses.

(D) Air temperature surrounding rhododendrons, which can grow 12 feet tall, is likely to differ from air temperature surrounding crocuses, which are normally only a few inches high, by more than 1℃, even if the two plants are growing side by side.（D）

(E) Certain types of thermometers that are commonly used to measure outdoor temperatures can be extremely accurate in moderate temperature ranges but much less accurate in warmer or colder temperature range.

16.   Political scientist: The dissemination of political theories is in principle able to cause change in exiting social structures. However, all political theories are formulated in the educationally privileged setting of the university, leading to convoluted language that is alienating to many individuals outside academia who would be important agents of change. It follows that, with respect to political theory, there is a special role for those outside the university context to render it into accessible, clear language.

Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?

(A) Persons outside academic settings are the most important agents of change to the social structure.

(B) Persons within academic settings who formulate political theories attempt to change existing social structure.

(C) Persons outside academic settings are better left out of the initial formulation of political theories.

(D) Persons outside academic settings stand to gain more from the dissemination of political theories than persons inside.（E）

(E) Persons within academic settings are less willing or less able than persons outside to write in a straightforward way.

17.   Nicotine has long been known to cause heart attacks and high blood pressure. Yet a recent study has shown that the incidence of heart attacks and high blood pressure is significantly higher among cigarette smokers who do not chew tobacco than among nonsmokers exposed to an equal amount of nicotine through tobacco chewing.

Which one of the following, if true, helps LEAST to resolve the apparent discrepancy described above?

(A) People who smoke but do not chew tobacco tend to exercise less than those who chew tobacco but do not smoke.

(B) Chemicals other than nicotine present in chewing tobacco but not present in cigarette smoke mitigate the effects that nicotine has on the cardiovascular system.

(C) People who chew tobacco but do not smoke tend to have healthier diets than those who smoke but do not chew tobacco.

(D) Chemicals other than nicotine present in chewing tobacco but not present in cigarette smoke can cause cancer.（D）

(E) Chemicals other than nicotine present in cigarette smoke but not present in chewing tobacco raise blood pressure.

18.   President of Central Supply Company: Profits are at an all-time low this fiscal year because of decreased demand for our products. If this situation continues, the company may have to declare bankruptcy. So it is important to prevent any further decrease in profits. Consequently, the only options are to reduce planed expansion or to eliminate some less profitable existing operations.

Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the company president’s reasoning?

(A) It presumes without giving justification that survival of the company has been a good thing.

(B) It does not take into account that there are alternatives to declaring the bankruptcy.

(C) It presumes without giving justification that only decreased demand can ever be the cause of decreased profits.

(D) It does not allow for the possibility that profits will decrease only slightly during the next fiscal year.（E）

(E) It does not take into account that there may be other ways to stop the decrease in profits.

19.   In all mammalian species, the period of a young mammal’s life in which it is most frequently playful coincides with the periods of most rapid growth of the neural connections in the mammal’s brain that give rise to various complex patterns of movement, posture, and social response. Indeed, the neutral connections created by frequent play during this period later become indispensable for the mammal’s survival and well-being as an adult.

The statements above, if true, serve LEAST well as evidence for which one of the following?

(A) Young mammals of species that are preyed on by other animals are likely to engage in forms of sudden mock flight, bolting away from locations where no predators are to be found.

(B) The young predators of nonmammalian species such as fish, reptiles, and birds do not normally engage in playful behavior that serves the function served by play in the development of young mammals.

(C) Adult mammals are more likely to engage in interactive play with their young if they engaged in similar forms of play when they themselves were young.

(D) Mammals that cannot engage in certain common forms of play when young are likely to show certain deficits that limit their subsequent success as adults.（B）

(E) Young mammals of predatory species tend to practice in their play inoffensive versions of motions and actions that are useful in finding and catching prey when these mammals become adults.

20.   Physicist: Determinism is the view that every event has a preceding cause sufficient for its occurrence. That is, if determinism is true, then the events that are presently occurring could not have failed to occur given the state of the universe a moment ago. Determinism, however, is false because it is impossible to know the complete state of the universe at any given time since it is impossible to measure accurately both the position and velocity of any given subatomic particle at a particular time.

The physicist’s reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds?

(A) That it is impossible to measure accurately both the position and velocity of any given subatomic particle does not imply that it is impossible to know either the position or velocity of all subatomic particles.

(B) That the complete state of the universe at any given time is unknowable does not imply that the states at that time of the individual subatomic particles making it up are unknowable.

(C) That it is impossible to measure accurately both the position and velocity of any given subatomic particle at a particular time does not imply that its position or velocity cannot be accurately measured separately.

(D) That it is impossible to know the complete state of the universe at any given time does not imply that there is no complete state of the universe at that time.（D）

(E) That the position and velocity of any given subatomic particle cannot be jointly measured with accuracy does not imply that this is the case for the position and velocity of all subatomic particles.

21.   If this parking policy is unpopular with the faculty, then we should modify it. If it is unpopular among students, we should adopt a new policy. And, it is bound to be unpopular either with the faculty or among students.

If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?

(A) We should attempt to popularize this parking policy among either the faculty or students.

(B) We should modify this parking policy only if this will not reduce its popularity among students.

(C) We should modify this parking policy if modification will not reduce its popularity with the faculty.

(D) If this parking policy is popular among students, then we should adopt a new policy.（E）

(E) If this parking policy is popular with the faculty, then we should adopt a new policy.

22.   It is absurd idea that whatever artistic endeavor the government refuses to support it does not allow, as one can see by rephrasing the statement to read: No one is allowed to create art without a government subsidy.

The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above?

(A) The claim that any driver who is not arrested does not break the law is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: Every driver who breaks the law gets arrested.

(B) The claim that any driver who is not arrested does mot break the law is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: Every driver who gets arrested has broken the law.

(C) The notion that every scientist who is supported by a government grant will be successful is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: No scientist who is successful is so without a government grant.

(D) The notion that every scientist who is supported by a government grant will be successful is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: No scientist lacking governmental support will be successful.（A）

(E) The notion that every scientist who has been supported by a government grant will be successful is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: No scientist is allowed to do research without a government grant.

23.   Politician: Nobody can deny that homelessness is a problem, yet there seems to be little agreement on how to solve it. One thing, however, is clear: ignoring the problem will not make it go away. Only if the government steps in and provides the homeless with housing will this problem disappear, and this necessitates increased taxation. For this reason, we should raise taxes.

Which one of the following principles, if valid, most supports the politician’s argument?

(A) Only if a measure is required to solve a problem, should it be adopted.

(B) Only if a measure is sufficient to solve a problem, should it be adopted.

(C) If a measure is required to solve a problem, it should be adopted.

(D) If a measure is sufficient to solve a problem, then it should be adopted.（C）

(E) If a measure is sufficient to solve a problem, any steps necessitated by that measure should be adopted.

24.   Trade official: Country X deserves economic retribution for its protectionism. However, it is crucial that we recognize that there are overriding considerations in this case. We should still sell to X the agricultural equipment it ordered: there is high demand in our country for agricultural imports from X.

The argument depends on assuming which one of the following principles?

(A) Agricultural components of international trade are more important than nonagricultural commodities.

(B) The ability to keep popular products available domestically is less important than our being able to enter international market.

(C) We should never jeopardize the interests of our people to punish a protectionist country.

(D) In most cases, punishing a protectionist country should have priority over the interests of our people.（E）

(E) We should balance the justice of an action with the consequences for our interests of undertaking that action.

25.   Jack’s aunt gave him her will, asking him to make it public when she died; he promised to do so. After her death, Jack looked at the will: it stipulated that all her money go to her friend George. Jack knew that if he made the will public, George would squander the money benefiting neither George nor anyone else. Jack also knew that if he did not make the will public, the money would go to his own mother, who would use it to benefit herself and others, harming no one. After reflection, he decided not to make the will public.

Which one of the following principles, if valid, would require Jack to act as he did in the situation described?

(A) Duties to family members take priority over duties to people who are not family members.

(B) Violating a promise is impermissible whenever doing so would become known by others.

(C) One must choose an alternative that benefits some and harms no one over an alternative that harms some and benefits no one.

(D) When faced with alternatives it is obligatory to choose whichever one will benefit the greatest number of people.（D）

(E) A promise becomes nonbinding when the person to whom the promise was made is no longer living.

SECTION IV

Time 35 minutes 26 Questions

Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages...

1.     Taxpayer: For the last ten years, Metro City’s bridge-maintenance budget of $1 million annually has been a prime example of fiscal irresponsibility. In a well-run bridge program, the city would spend $15 million a year on maintenance, which would prevent severe deterioration, thus limiting capital expenses for needed bridge reconstruction to $10 million. However, as a result of its attempt to economize, the city is now faced with spending $400 million over two years on emergency reconstruction of its bridges.

The main point of the taxpayer’s argument is that Metro City

(A) should have budgeted substantially more money for maintenance of its bridges

(B) would have had a well-run bridge program of it had spent more money for reconstruction of its bridges

(C) is spending more than it needs to on maintenance of its bridges

(D) is economizing on its bridge program to save money in case of emergencies（A）

(E) has bridges that are more expensive to maintain than they were to build

2.     Twenty professional income-tax advisors were given identical records from which to prepare an income-tax return. The advisors were not aware that they were dealing with fictitious records compiles by a financial magazine. No two of the completed tax returns agreed with each other, and only one was technically correct.

If the information above is correct, which one of the following conclusion can be properly drawn on the basis of it?

(A) Only one out of every twenty income-tax returns prepared by any given professional income-tax advisor will be correct.

(B) The fact that a tax return has been prepared by a professional income-tax advisor provides no guarantee that the tax return has been correctly prepared.

(C) In order to ensure that tax returns are correct, it is necessary to hire professional income-tax advisor to prepare them.

(D) All professional income-tax advisors make mistakes on at least some of the tax returns they prepare.（B）

(E) People are more likely to have an incorrectly prepared tax return if they prepare their own tax returns than if they hire a professional income-tax advisor.

3.     The manager of a nuclear power plant defended the claim that the plant was safe by revealing its rate of injury for current workers: only 3.2 injuries per 200,000 hours of work, a rate less than half the national average for all industrial plants. The manager claimed that, therefore, by the standard of how many injuries occur, the plant was safer than most other plants where the employees could work.

Which one of the following, if true, most calls into question the manager’s claim?

(A) Workers at nuclear power plants are required to receive extra training in safety precautions on their own time and at their own expense.

(B) Workers at nuclear power plants are required to report to the manager any cases of accidental exposure to radiation.

(C) The exposure of the workers to radiation at nuclear power plants was within levels the government considers safe.

(D) Workers at nuclear power plants have filed only a few lawsuits against the management concerning unsafe working conditions.（E）

(E) Medical problems arising from work at a nuclear power plant are unusual in that they are not likely to appear until after an employee has left employment at the plant.

4.     Columnist: The country is presently debating legislation that, if passed, would force manufacturers to increase the number of paid vacation days for employees, to pay higher overtime wages, and to pay all day-care expenses for children of each employee. This legislation is being supported by members of groups that have resorted to violent tactics in the past, and by individuals who are facing indictment on tax-evasion charges. We must defeat this legislation and what it stands for.

The columnist’s argument is flawed because it

(A) attack’s legislation by calling into question the integrity of the originators of the legislation

(B) assails legislation on the basis of the questionable character of supporters of the legislation

(C) attempts to discredit legislation by appealing to public sentiment for those who would be adversely affected

(D) presupposes that legislation is bad legislation whenever it has only a small number of supporters outside the country’s national legislative body（B）

(E) rejects legislation on the ground that its supporters are inconsistently in seeking to place burdens on manufacturers upon whose business success the supporters depend

5.     If the ivory trade continues, experts believe, the elephant will soon become extinct in Africa, because poaching is rife in many areas. A total ban on ivory trading would probably prevent the extinction. However, the country of Zimbabwe—which has virtually eliminated poaching within its borders and which relies on income from carefully culling elephant herds that threaten to become too big—objects to such a ban. Zimbabwe holds that the problem lies not with the ivory trade but with the conservation policies of other countries.

Which one of the following principles forms a logical basis for Zimbabwe’s objection to a ban?

(A) International measures to correct a problem should not adversely affect countries that are not responsible for the problem.

(B) Freedom of trade is not a right but a consequence of agreements among nations.

(C) Respecting a country’s sovereignty is more important than preventing the extinction of a species.

(D) Prohibitions affecting several countries should be enforced by a supranational agency.（A）

(E) Effective conservation cannot be achieved without eliminating poaching.

6.     The male sage grouse has air sacs that when not inflated, lie hidden beneath the grouse’s neck feathers. During its spring courtship ritual, the male sage grouse inflates these air sacs and displays them to the female sage grouse. Some scientists hypothesize that this courtship ritual serves as a means for female sage grouse to select healthy mates.

Which one of the following, if rue, most strongly supports the scientists’ hypothesis?

(A) Some female sage grouse mate with unhealthy male sage grouse.

(B) When diseased male sage grouse were treated with antibiotics, they were not selected by female sage grouse during the courtship ritual.

(C) Some healthy male sages grouse do not inflate their air sacs as part of the courtship ritual.

(D) Male sage grouse are prone to parasitic infections that exhibit symptoms visible on the birds’ air sacs.（D）

(E) The sage grouse is commonly afflicted with a strain of malaria that tends to change as the organism that causes it undergoes mutation.

7.     Consumers will be hurt by the new lower ceiling on halibut catches. Given the law of supply and demand these restrictions are likely to result in an increase in the price of the fish.

Which one of the following, if assumed, would do most to justify the claim that the price of halibut will increase?

(A) The demand for halibut will not decrease substantially after the new restrictions are imposed.

(B) There is a connection between the supply of halibut and the demand for it.

(C) The lost production of halibut will not be replaced by increased production of other fish.

(D) The demand for other fish will be affected by the new restrictions.（A）

(E) The amount of halibut consumed represents a very small proportion of all fish consumed.

8.     Knowledge of an ancient language is essential for reading original ancient documents. Most ancient historical documents, however, have been translated into modern languages, so scholars of ancient history can read them for their research without learning ancient languages. Therefore, aspirants to careers as ancient history scholars no longer need to take the time to learn ancient languages.

The argument is vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds?

(A) It concludes that something is never necessary on the grounds that it is not always necessary.

(B) A statement of fact is treated as if it were merely a statement of opinion.

(C) The conclusion is no more than a restatement of the evidence provides as support of that conclusion.

(D) The judgment of experts is applied to a matter in which their expertise is irrelevant.（A）

(E) Some of the evidence presented in support of the conclusion is inconsistent with other evidences provided.

Questions 9-10

The Board of Trustees of the Federici Art Museum has decided to sell some works from its collection in order to raise the funds necessary to refurbish its galleries. Although this may seem like a drastic remedy, the curator had long maintained that among the paintings that the late Ms. Federici collected for the museum were several unsuccessful immature works by Renoir and Cezanne that should be sold because they are of inferior quality and so add nothing to the overall quality of the museum’s collection. Hence, the board’s action will not detract from the museum’s collection.

9.     The conclusion drawn depends on which one of the following assumption?

(A) Art speculators are unable to distinguish an inferior painting by Renoir from a masterpiece by him.

(B) All of the paintings that the board of trustee sells will be among those that the curator recommends selling.

(C) All of the paintings by Renoir and Cezanne that are owned by the Federici Art Museum were purchased by Ms. Federici herself.

(D) Only an avid collector of paintings by Cezanne would be willing to pay a high price for early works by this artist.（B）

(E) A great work of art can be truly appreciated only if it is displayed in a carefully designed and well-maintained gallery.

10.   Which one of the following, if true, most weaken the argument?

(A) The directors of an art museum can generally raise funds for refurbishing the building in which the museum’s collection is housed by means other than selling parts of its collection.

(B) The quality of an art collection is determined not just by the quality of its paintings, but by what development of the artistic talent and ideas of the artists represented.

(C) The immature woks by Renoir and Cezanne that were purchased by Ms. Federici were at that time thought by some critics to be unimportant juvenile works.

(D) Those people who speculate in art by purchasing artworks merely to sell them at much higher prices welcome inflation in the art market, but curators of art museum regret the inflation in the art market.（B）

(E) The best work of a great artist demands much higher prices in the art market than the worst work of that same artist.

11.   Taken together, some 2,000 stocks recommended on a popular television show over the course of the past 12 years by the show’s guests, most of whom are successful consultants for multibillion-dollar stock portfolios, performed less successfully than the market as a whole for this 12-year period. So clearly, no one should ever follow any recommendation by these so-called experts.

Each of the following, if true, weakens the argument EXCEPT:

(A) Taken together, the stocks recommended on the television show performed better than the market as a whole for the past year.

(B) Taken together, the stocks recommended on the television show performed better for the past 12-year period than stock portfolios that were actually selected by any other means.

(C) Performance of the stocks recommended on the television show was measured by stock dividends, whereas the performance of the market as a whole was measured by change in share value.

(D) Performance of the stocks recommended on the television show was measured independently by a number of analysts, and the results of the all the measurements concurred.（D）

(E) The stock portfolios for which the guests were consultants performed better for the past 12-year period than the market as a whole.

12.   The school principal insisted that student failures are caused by bad teaching. In a relatively short time failing grades disappeared from the school. The principal happily recognized this as evidence that the teaching had improved at the school.

The flawed pattern of reasoning in the above is most similar to that in which one of the following?

(A) The nutritionist insisted that the weight gain that team members complained of was caused by overeating. In a brief time all the members stopped overeating. The nutritionist was pleased to conclude that they had stopped gaining weight.

(B) The manager insisted that the workers who filed complaints had too many difference tasks. The manager simplified the jobs, and complains stopped. The manager happily concluded that the working environment had been improved.

(C) The nutritionist insisted that the weight gain that team members complained of was merely in their imagination. Members were given weight charts for the last three months. The nutritionist was pleased to conclude that the complaints of weight gain had stopped.

(D) The manager insisted that the workers who filed complaints did not have enough to do. Soon there were no more complaints filed. The manager was pleased to conclude that the workers were now productively filling their time.（D）

(E) The nutritionist insisted that the weight gain that team members complained of was cause by their thinking of food too often. The nutritionist was happy to conclude that the weight gain had stopped once the team members reported that they had stopped thinking of food so often.

13.   Unlike other primroses, self-pollinating primroses do not need to rely on insects for pollination. In many years insect pollinators are scarce, and in those years a typical non-self-pollinating primrose produces fewer seeds than does a typical self-pollinating primrose. In other years, seed production is approximately equal. Thus, self-pollinating primroses have the advantage of higher average seed production. Aside from seed production, these self-pollinating primroses are indistinguishable from non-self-pollinating primroses. Nevertheless, self-pollinating primrose plants remain rare among primroses.

Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above?

(A) Insects that collect pollen from primroses do not discriminate between self-pollinating primroses and non-self-pollinating primroses.

(B) When insect pollinators are scarce, non-self-pollinating primroses produce larger seeds that are more likely to germinate than are seeds from self-pollinating primroses.

(C) Self-pollinating primroses that are located in areas with few insects produce no fewer seeds than do self-pollinating primroses that are located in areas with many insects.

(D) Many primroses are located in areas in which the soil conditions that are optimal for seed germination are not present.（B）

(E) Self-pollinating primroses can be assisted by insects during pollination but do not require the assistance of insects to be pollinated.

14.   We have a moral obligation not to destroy books, even if they belong to us. The reason is quite simple: If preserved, books will almost certainly contribute to the intellectual and emotional enrichment of future generations.

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the principle underlying the argument?

(A) It is morally incumbent upon us to devote effort to performing actions that have at least some chance of improving other people’s lives.

(B) We are morally obligated to preserve anything that past generations had preserved for our intellectual and emotional enrichment.

(C) The moral commitments we have to future generations supersede the moral commitments we have to the present generation.

(D) We are morally obligated not to destroy anything that will most likely enrich, either intellectually or emotionally, our posterity.（D）

(E) Being morally obligated not to destroy something requires that we be reasonably assured that that thing will lead to the betterment of someone we know.

15.   The southern half of a certain region of the earth was covered entirely by water during the Cretaceous period, the last 75 million years of the Mesozoic era, the era when dinosaurs roamed the earth. Dinosaurs lived only on land. Thus, Plesiosaurs—swimming reptile that lived during the Cretaceous period exclusively—were not dinosaurs. No single species of dinosaur lived throughout the entire Mesozoic era.

If the statements in the passage are true, each of the following could be true EXCEPT:

(A) Dinosaurs inhabited the northern half of the region throughout the entire Mesozoic era.

(B) Plesiosaurs did not inhabit the southern half of the region during the Cretaceous periods.

(C) Plesiosaurs did not inhabit the southern half of the region before the Cretaceous period.

(D) Dinosaurs did not inhabit the northern half of the region during the Cretaceous period.（E）

(E) Dinosaurs inhabited the southern half of the region throughout the entire Mesozoic era.

16.   Essayist: Wisdom and intelligence are desirable qualities. However, being intelligent does not imply that one is wise, nor does being wise imply that one is intelligent. In my own experience, the people I meet have one or the other of these qualities but not both.

If the essayist’s statements are true, them each of the following could be true EXCEPT:

(A) Most people are neither intelligent, nor wise.

(B) Most people are both intelligent and wise.

(C) No one is both wise and intelligent.

(D) No one is either wise or intelligent.（D）

(E) Many people are intelligent and yet lack wisdom.

17.   Concerned citizen: The mayor, an outspoken critic of the proposed restoration of city hall, is right when he notes that the building is outdated, but that the restoration would be expensive at a time when the budget is already tight. We cannot afford such a luxury item in this time of financial restraint, he says. However, I respectfully disagree. The building provides the last remaining link to the days of the city’s founding, and preserving a sense of municipal history is crucial to maintaining respect for our city government and its authority. So to the question, “Can we really afford to?” I can only respond, “Can we afford not to?”

Which one of the following most accurately characterizes a flaw in the concerned citizen’s argument?

(A) The argument is solely an emotional appeal to history.

(B) The argument ambiguously uses the word “afford.”

(C) The argument inappropriately appeals to the authority of the mayor.

(D) The argument incorrectly presumes that the restoration would be expensive.（B）

(E) The argument inappropriately relies on the emotional connotations of words such as “outdated” and “luxury.”

18.   Obviously, we cannot in any real sense mistreat plants. Plants do not have nervous systems, and having a nervous system is necessary to experience pain.

The conclusion above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

(A) Any organism that can experience pain can be mistreated.

(B) Only organisms that have nervous systems can experience pain.

(C) Any organism that has a nervous system can experience pain.

(D) Only organisms that can experience pain can be mistreated.（D）

(E) Any organism that has a nervous system can be mistreated.

19.   Inez: In these poor economic times, people want to be sure they are getting good value for their money. I predict people would be more willing to buy antiques at our fair if we first have the objects inspected by professional appraisers who would remove any objects of questionable authenticity.

Anika: I disagree with your prediction. Our customers already are antiques experts. Furthermore, hiring professional appraisers would push up our costs considerably, thus forcing us to raise the prices on all antiques.

Anika’s response proceeds by

(A) indicating that a particular plan would have an effect contrary to the anticipated effect

(B) claiming that a particular plan should not be adopted because, while effective, it would have at least one undesirable consequence

(C) arguing that an alternative plan could achieve a desired result more easily than the plan originally proposed

(D) questioning the assumption that authorities are available who have special knowledge of the problem under discussion（A）

(E) offering a counterexample in order to show that a particular general claim is too broadly stated

20.   In some ill-considered popularizations of interesting current research, it is argued that higher apes have the capacity for language but have never put it to use—a remarkable biological miracle, given the enormous selectional advantage of even minimal linguistic skills. It is rather like claiming that some animal has wings adequate for flight but has never thought to fly.

Which one of the following is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above?

(A) Arguing that there are some humans who never sleep is rather like discovering a species of lion that does not eat meat.

(B) Arguing that Earth has been visited by aliens from outer space is rather like claiming that early explorers had visited North American but never founded cities.

(C) Arguing that the human brain has telekinetic powers that no humans have ever exercised is rather like arguing that some insect has legs but never uses them to walk.

(D) Claiming that some people raised tobacco but did not smoke it is rather like claiming that a society that knew how to brew alcohol never drink it.（C）

(E) Arguing that not all people with cars will drive them is rather like claiming that humans invented gasoline long before they used it as fuel for transportation.

Questions 21-22

Sarah: some schools seek to foster a habit of volunteering in their students by requiring them to perform community service. But since a person who has been forced to do something has not really volunteered and since the habit of volunteering cannot be said to have been fostered in a person who has not yet volunteered for anything, there is no way this policy can succeed by itself.

Paul: I disagree. Some students forced to perform community service have enjoyed it so much that they subsequently actually volunteer to do something similar. In such cases, the policy can clearly be said to have fostered a habit of volunteering.

21.   Paul responds to Sarah’s argument using which one of the following argumentative techniques?

(A) He argues that Sarah is assuming just what she sets out to prove.

(B) He argues that Sarah’s conception of what it means to volunteer excludes certain activities that ought to be considered instances of volunteering.

(C) He introduces considerations that call into question one of Sarah’s assumptions.

(D) He questions Sarah’s motives for advancing an argument against the school policy.（C）

(E) He argues that a policy Sarah fails to consider could accomplish the same aim as the policy that Sarah considers.

22.   The main point at issue between Sarah and Paul is whether

(A) there are any circumstances under which an individual forced to perform a task can correctly be said to have genuinely volunteered to perform that task

(B) being forced to perform community service can provide enjoyment to the individual who is forced to perform such service

(C) being forced to perform community device can by itself encourage a genuine habit of volunteering in those students who are forced to perform such service

(D) it is possible for school to develop policies that foster the habit of volunteering in their students（C）

(E) students who develop a habit of volunteering while in school are inclined to perform community service later in their lives

23.   Only computer scientists understand the architecture of personal computers, and only those who understand the architecture of personal computers appreciate the advances in technology made in the last decade. It follows that only those who appreciate these advances are computer scientists.

Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the reasoning in the argument?

(A) The argument contains no stated or implied relationship between computer scientists and those who appreciate the advances in technology in the last decade.

(B) The argument ignores the fact that some computer scientists may not appreciate the advances in technology made in the last decade.

(C) The argument ignores the fact that computer scientists may appreciate other things besides the advances in technology made in the last decade.

(D) The premises of the argument are stated in such a way that they exclude the possibility of drawing any logical conclusion.（B）

(E) The premises of the argument presuppose that everyone understands the architecture of personal computers.

24.   Sociologist: Research shows, contrary to popular opinion, that, all other things being equal, most people who have pets are less happy than most people who do not. Therefore, any person who wants to be as happy as possible would do well to consider not having a pet.

Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the sociologist’s argument?

(A) Some people who have pets are happier than most people who do not.

(B) Most people who have no pets occasionally wish that they had pets.

(C) Most people who have pets are reasonably happy.

(D) Most people who have pets feel happier because they have pets.（D）

(E) All people who have no pets admit to feeling unhappy sometimes.

25.   The dwarf masked owl, a rare migratory bird of prey, normally makes its winter home on the Baja peninsula, where it nests in the spiny cactus. In fact, there are no other suitable nesting sites for the dwarf masked owl on the Baja peninsula. But a blight last spring destroyed all of the spiny cacti on the Baja peninsula. So unless steps are taken to reestablish the spiny cactus population, the dwarf masked owl will not make its home on the Baja peninsula this winter.

The argument depends on assuming which one of the following?

(A) No birds of prey other than the dwarf masked owl nest in the spiny cactus.

(B) If the Baja peninsula contains spiny cacti, then the dwarf masked owl makes its winter home there.

(C) On occasion the dwarf masked owl has been known to make its winter home far from its normal migratory route.

(D) The dwarf masked owl will not make its winter home on the Baja peninsula only if that region contains no spiny cacti.（E）

(E) Suitable nesting sites must be present where the dwarf masked owl masked its winter home.

26.   At night, a flock of crows will generally perch close together in a small place—often a piece of wooded land—called a roost. Each morning, the crows leave the roost and fan out in small groups to hunt and scavenge the surrounding area. For most flocks, the crow’s hunting extends as far as 100 to 130 kilometers (60 to 80 miles) from the roost. Normally, a flock will continue to occupy the same roost for several consecutive years, and when it abandons a roost site for a new one the new roost is usually less than eight kilometers (five miles) away.

Of the following claims, which one can most justifiably be rejected on the basis of the statement above?

(A) Crows will abandon their roost site only in response to increase in the population of the flock.

(B) When there is a shortage of food in the area in which a flock of crows normally hunts and scavenges, some members of the flock will begin to hunt and scavenge outside that area.

(C) Most of the hunting and scavenging that crows do occurs more than eight kilometers (five miles) from their roost.

(D) Once a flock of crows has settled on a new roost site, it is extremely difficult to force it to abandon that site for another.（E）

(E) When a flock of crows moves to a new roost site, it generally does so because the area in which it has hunted and scavenged has been depleted of food sources.

TEST 27

SECTION II

1.        A	2.        C	3.        A	4.        A	5.        B
6.        C	7.        C	8.        A	9.        E	10.    E
11.    D	12.    A	13.    B	14.    A	15.    D
16.    E	17.    D	18.    E	19.    B	20.    D
21.    E	22.    A	23.    C	24.    E	25.    D

SECTION IV

1.        A	2.        B	3.        E	4.        B	5.        A
6.        D	7.        A	8.        A	9.        B	10.    B
11.    D	12.    D	13.    B	14.    D	15.    E
16.    D	17.    B	18.    D	19.    A	20.    C
21.    C	22.    C	23.    B	24.    D	25.    E
26.    E	27.	28.	29.	30.

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